Audience

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Stuart Hall Theory

The reception theory states that media texts are encoded by the producer. This means that the text will have messages and values created by this producer. Then the text is decoded by an audience. Each person viewing a media text will view it differently, not always in the way the producer wanted it to.

There are 3 readings applied to this theory: dominant reading, negotiated reading and oppositional reading.

Dominant reading 

This means that an audience views a media text in the exact way the producer intended. The audience fully agrees with the ideology and the meaning behind the text. Therefore, this means that the consumption has been met and the institution is happy that the meaning they intended is understood by an audience.

How could an audience have a dominant reading?

-They are the same age so the product is more relatable

-From the same culture and have the same religious views
-The narrative is easy to understand

Negotiated reading

This is a mixture between the dominant and oppositional reading. An audience accepts the message the producer was trying to get across, yet also they have their own understanding of the media text. They don't agree or disagree, although they are aware of the point being made, however they have their own opinion of the text. 

How could an audience have a negotiated reading?

-They may not have been through the same life experiences so cannot fully understand
-Age may be too different so they fail to understand the narrative
-The messages may be hard and unclear to understand, therefore the dominant reading is not understood

Oppositional reading

The audience completely rejects the reading and creates their own understanding of the text. This means that they don't agree with the message being shown. They may misinterpret the text and see it in the wrong way. It could make them feel upset, annoyed and angry, meaning they have failed to see the intended message from the institution.

How could an audience have a oppositional reading?

-The media text conveys controversial themes
-They don't agree with whats being shown in the text
-Different cultures have different understandings
-May fail to understand what is going on
-They may find if offensive and cause negative feelings surrounding the text

Hypodermic needle theory

Implies that mass media had a direct, immediate, and powerful effect on it's audiences. Mass media in 1940's and 50's were perceived as a powerful influence on behaviour change. 

The theory suggets that mass media could influence a very large group of people directly and uniformly by 'shooting' or 'injecting' them with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response.  It suggests a powerful and direct flow of information from the sender to the receiver. suggets that the media messages are injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately influenced by the message. 

It expresses the view that the media is a dangerous means of communicating an idea because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the impact of the message. People are seen as passive and are seen as having a lot of media material 'shot' at them. People end up thinking that what they are told because there are no other source of information.

The theory assumes that what we see or hear, we believe and consume. The theory implies we are brainwashed into believing the media messages.

We are consumed by media products and are influenced by them greatly. 

In the 1930's a radio broadcast of 'War of The Worlds' was performed like a real news broadcast to heighten the effect of the story, people listening thought it was real and assumed mars had come to invade the world.This demonstrates a passive audience and how an audience believes what they hear in the news and how this can quickly lead to misinterpretation. 

Cons of the theory:

-Not everyone watches the news/consumes media in the same way

-Very out of date and invalid

-Audiences are not simply passive, more up-to-date theories have proved this

-Technology has changed how we consume media and the sources where it originates from

-We are more aware of society and how institutions operate

-We are now used to consuming media texts that we understand conventions and know when to react to messages if we deem them insignificant.

How does the Bad Blood music video link or not link to the Hypodermic Needle Theory?

The strong narrative of Betrayal in the plot of the Bad Blood music video could make Taylor Swift's fans believe she is taking a side jab at someone who has betrayed her in the past. This relates to the Hypodermic needle theory because it means that the audience assume that what they're seeing has happened to the artist for her to produce a video on the subject in the first place. Furthermore, this also means that the audience believe any message that a type of media text promotes and implies that we are indeed brainwashed into believing the message being shown. However, as the theory is old, there are many cons, meaning the theory also couldn't conform to the Bad Blood music video as we are much more aware of how media institutions operate. Due to being so aware of how the media uses particular subjects to make the media text more popular, the producers of the Bad Blood music video may have chosen the subject of betrayal in order to make it seem like Taylor had 'bad blood' with someone, causing people to jump to conclusions and talk about who it could be aimed at. People believe it is a dig at Katy Perry and this shows that audiences are aware of how the institutions use certain subjects to gain more views. Therefore, audiences don't always consume the message in the same way; some people may think they've chosen the topic of betrayal for popularity as people will discuss it more, whereas others may believe they've chosen the topic of betrayal for the audience to sympathise with- proving that the theory is outdated because not everyone believes the same message and reasons behind the choice of the message a media text is trying to promote. 

Genre Theory

Genre

Genre is a critical tool that helps us study texts and audience responses to texts by dividing them into categories based on common elements: codes and conventions, iconography, organising structure, paradigm. 

Generic characteristics across all texts share similar elements:

-Typical mise en scene/visual style. (Iconography, props, set design, lighting, temporal and geographic location, costume, shot types, camera angles, special effects)
-Typical types of narrative (plots, historical setting, set pieces)
-Generic types ie. typical characters
-Typical studios/ production companies

-Typical personnel (directors, producers, actors, stars, auteurs, etc)
-Typical sound design (dialogue, sound effects
-Typical editing style

 Katy Perry

Lana Del Rey

For example, these two pop stars Katy Perry and Lana Del Rey are wearing similar costumes which conforms to the idea that they are both reflecting their chosen genre of music (pop) through the use of the bright coloured flowers, as rock artists would not have this particular style of iconography around them.

Daniel Chandler (2001)

Chandler argues that the word 'genre' comes from the French (and originally Latin) word for 'kind' or 'class.' The term is widely used in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, to refer to a distinctive type of 'text.'

All genres have sub genres. This means that they are divided up into more specific categories that allow audiences to identify them specifically by their familiar and what become recognisable characteristics (Barry Keith Grant 1995)

Steve Neale (1995)

Neale stresses that 'genres' are not 'systems', they are processes of 'systemisation' ie. they are dynamic and evolve over time. Neale also says 'genres are instances of repetition and difference.' How a media text must conform to these conventions enough that it can still qualify and be identified as a media text of that genre. How much a media text subverts the genres stereotypes and conventions. He says that a media text must subvert these conventions enough that it is still viewed as a unique media text, not just a clone. Furthermore, he states that difference is vital to the economy of genre as simply repeating everything would not make an audience want to watch a media text, therefore media texts need to stick to a genre but also offer something different to attract the audience.

The Bad Blood music video and Katy Perry's 'Roar' is quite similar. Both videos are quite bright and often colourful. This represents their genre of pop and how these same connotations of bright colours are being used to allow the audience to identify the pop genre, however they are used differently to portray certain narratives, although we can still see it is a pop genre. This relates to Steve Neale's theory because although the two videos are different in terms of the messages being represented, the genre of the videos are identified through the same things; such as the bright colours, makeup choices and the outfits worn. This suggests that same genre music videos do represent the genre similarly, but are still different from each other enough to make it interesting for an audience to watch.

Jason Mittell (2001)
Mittell argues that genres are cultural categories that surpass the boundaries of media texts and operate within the industry, audience and cultural practises as well. Industries use genre to sell products to audiences. Media producers use familiar codes and conventions that very often make cultural references to their audience knowledge of society, other texts. In the Bad Blood video there are lots of references to other film texts which all help to promote a certain message to sell to an audience- that message is the 'betrayed' storyline.

Rick Altman (1999) argues that genre offers audiences ‘a set of pleasures
•Emotional Pleasures: The emotional pleasures offered to audiences of genre films are particularly significant when they generate a strong audience response.•Visceral Pleasures: Visceral pleasures (‘visceral’ refers to internal organs) are ‘gut’ responses and are defined by how the film’s stylistic construction elicits a physical effect upon its audience. This can be a feeling of revulsion, kinetic speed, or a ‘roller coaster ride’.•Intellectual Puzzles: Certain film genres such as the thriller or the ‘whodunit’ offer the pleasure in trying to unravel a mystery or a puzzle. Pleasure is derived from deciphering the plot and forecasting the end or the being surprised by the unexpected.
Taylor Swift's Bad Blood music video has all of these emotions labeled by Rick Altman. For example, it is an emotional video as the narrative is based around being betrayed by someone who meant a lot to her, which therefore creates emotional pleasure to an audience as they will sympathise with her and feel a particular way. Also, it offers visceral pleasure as the audience are on the edge of their seats wondering what Taylor is going to do when she's planning her revenge. The Bad Blood video also has intellectual puzzles as at the very beginning we're confused as to why she has been betrayed, however towards the end we realise that she was never really her friend to begin with and now there is a big feud between the two.

Postmodern Style

Music video is a medium intended to appeal directly to youth subcultures by reinforcing generic elements of musical genres.

•They are called pop-promos as they are used to promote a band or artist.•Music videos are postmodern texts whose main purpose is to promote a star persona (Dyer, 1975).•They don’t have to be literal representations of the song or lyrics.
Bad Blood could relate to postmodern style as the video appeals to youth subcultures via the narrative and also the interesting mise en scene and editing techniques used. Such as the guns, bikes, helicopters and explosions; these would engage a youthful audience. However, it could also apply to an older audience too, as many ages could enjoy watching this video. Furthermore, the video helps to promote Taylor Swift, as well as her famous friends such as Selena Gomez, Gigi Hadid, Cara Delevingne, Karlie Kloss, etc. This conveys the idea that the main purpose of media texts are to promote a star persona (Dyer 1975) and the Bad Blood music video does seem to promote stars such as models and singers.

 Gigi Hadid in the Bad Blood music video

Cara Delevingne in the Bad Blood music video

David Buckingham (1993) 

Argues that 'genre is not... Simply "given" by the culture: rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and change’.

The Bad Blood music video does link to David Buckingham's idea that genre is a constant process of negotiation and change. For example, the video genre is pop and it has various aspects of other media texts such as Kill Bill, Sin City, etc within the video and this implies that the pop genre is changing and referencing other genres of media within their own product. However, it is still a pop video which shows that by negotiating with other techniques, it can help to make the genre a bit different from other same genre videos and to make it more interesting for an audience to consume.

Narrative Theories Applied to Taylor Swift's Bad Blood

Tim O'Sullivan et al (1998) argues that all types of media texts show some sort of story. Through careful mediation (communication of media), media texts offer a way of telling stories about ourselves, not usually our own personal stories, but the story of us as a culture or set of cultures. Narrative theory sets out to show that what we experience when we 'read' a story is to understand particular sets of constructions and that it is important to be aware of how these constructions are put together. This narrative theory relates to Taylor Swift's Bad Blood because the music video has an important and intriguing story line of being betrayed. However, it could also not relate due to the fact the story is a personal one of Taylor's, although the ideology this story creates could relate to a wide audience, as everyone will feel betrayed at some point in their life, therefore this theory does partly relate to the Bad Blood music video. In addition, the ideology this music video creates could be that not everything is as it seems, as at the beginning of the Bad Blood music video everything seems normal until Taylor Swift is pushed out of the window by the person she thought was her friend. There also has real life references within the narrative, as Taylor Swift and Katy Perry had a fall out and Taylor's Bad Blood music video was thought to be about Perry, hence the lyric, "You say sorry just for show," implying that Perry is only apologizing in order to look good in front of the media.

Furthermore, this could also relate to Todorov's narrative theory, as he suggests that a media texts follow 5 stages.
Stage 1- A point of stable equilibrium- calm and normal.
Stage 2- This stability is disrupted by some kind of force which creates a state of disequilibrium.
Stage 3- Recognition that a disruption has taken place.
Stage 4- It is only possible to recreate equilibrium through action directed against disruption.
Stage 5- Restoration of a new state of equilibrium. The consequences of the reaction is to change the world of narrative and/or the characters, so that the first state of equilibrium is the same as the initial state.

In the Bad Blood music video this is extremely similar. First, Taylor Swift is seen with a friend fighting people, they seem to be doing well and know what they're doing, this is the equilibrium stage. Next is the disruption, Taylor's friend turns on her and pushes her out of the window. Realization follows (shown in the image below), as Taylor acknowledges she has been betrayed. Restored order is then attempted; Taylor gathers her female friends to help her get revenge. Lastly, equilibrium is partially restored, as both females have their friends with them and are last seen face-to-face- this could imply that they will never be friends again but now know each others true colours, so they can now get on with their lives.

The shot where Taylor realizes she has been betrayed.

Sven Carlsson (1999) states that music videos fall into two categories: performance clips and conceptual/abstract clips. Performance clips in music videos mainly show an artist/s dancing or singing, whereas if the video shows something else, often with artistic ambitions, it is classed as conceptual/abstract. Taylor Swift's music video is all conceptual and abstract, as the video is a story. Taylor sings in the video but it is viewed more as abstract because the video is artistic and not just Taylor singing on a stage; she is acting and occasionally singing at the same time. The mise en scene in this music video is abstract, for example, the location at the end and the use of the flames and the helicopters which would be edited after the production. The ending appears to be more like a film than a music video, emphasising the abstract aspect of the music video. However, as Taylor is performing and singing at the same time in various parts of the video, it can be viewed as a performance clip too.

Michael Shore (1984) argues that all music videos are: recycled styles, image and style scavengers, anaesthetisation of violence, surface without substance, stimulated experience, classical storytelling technique, just a look no dept,  etc. This can apply to the bad blood music video because there is lots of intertextuality and recycled styles from various films within the video. For example, Kill Bill during the fighting scene at the beginning, Harry Potter referencing using the mirror to see the reflection, Sin City for the Bad Blood font and colour, The Hunger Games when Taylor is being dressed for the fight, Tron and 5th Element. This reinforces the idea that all music videos are the classical storytelling technique, using the same styles which have been used over and over again by others. 

The Costume used in the film '5th Element' which Taylor is also seen wearing in the music video.

The costume is similar to that of the '5th Element' showing intertexuality.

 The fight scene in 'Kill Bill'

The fight scene in Bad Blood

 The red writing is similar to Sin City's below

Pam Cook (1985)
Pam Cook's theory is that media texts follow the standard Hollywood narrative structure. They should have linearity of cause and effect within an overall trajectory of enigma resolution, a high degree of narrative closure and a fictional world that contains verisimilitude, especially governed by spatial and temporal coherence. The Bad Blood music video has aspects of this narrative theory as there is linearity of cause and effect due to the betrayal plot and also has a high degree of narrative closure because the ending shows the resolution of the ending of the friendship. There is also a fictional world in the music video which contains verisimilitude due to the mise en scene and the locations used, however the mise en scene of the flames and helicopters at the end of the video is not as realistic, yet this is done to make the video appear more abstract and as an art form.

Bordwell and Thompson (1997)
They argue that there are two distinctions between story and plot. They are based on the Russian film theory, Fabula, which is the story. The fabula is the chronological series of events that are represented. Syuzhet is the plot; which means everything is visible to an audience. In the Bad Blood music video, the fabula is that we see the fighting, not why they're fighting or the part that leads up to it, we are brought straight into the action. We understand without being shown the planning that they're working as a team to fight the men and supposedly steal something.


Analysis of the lyrics:

[Chorus]
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood
You know it used to be mad love
So take a look what you've done
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!
Now we've got problems
And I don't think we can solve 'em
You made a really deep cut
And baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!

[Verse 1]
Did you have to do this?
I was thinking that you could be trusted
Did you have to ruin what was shiny?
Now it's all rusted
Did you have to hit me where I'm weak?
Baby, I couldn't breathe
And rub it in so deep
Salt in the wound like you're laughing right at me

[Pre-Chorus]
Oh, it's so sad to
Think about the good times
You and I

[Chorus]
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood
You know it used to be mad love
So take a look what you've done
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!
Now we've got problems
And I don't think we can solve 'em
You made a really deep cut
And baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!

[Verse 2]
Did you think we'd be fine?
Still got scars in my back from your knives
So don't think it's in the past
These kind of wounds they last and they last
Now, did you think it all through?
All these things will catch up to you
And time can heal, but this won't
So if you come in my way
Just don't

[Pre-Chorus]
Oh, it's so sad to
Think about the good times
You and I

[Chorus]
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood
You know it used to be mad love
So take a look what you've done
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!
Now we've got problems
And I don't think we can solve 'em
You made a really deep cut
And baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!

[Bridge]
Band-aids don't fix bullet holes
You say sorry just for show
You live like that, you live with ghosts
Band-aids don't fix bullet holes
You say sorry just for show
If you live like that, you live with ghosts
If you love like that, blood runs cold!

[Chorus]
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood
You know it used to be mad love
So take a look what you've done
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!
Now we've got problems
And I don't think we can solve 'em
You made a really deep cut
And baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!

[Chorus]
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood
You know it used to be mad love
So take a look what you've done
’Cause baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!
Now we've got problems
And I don't think we can solve 'em
You made a really deep cut
And baby, now we've got bad blood, hey!

The lyrics are based around a theme of being betrayed, which is the main plot of this story. The chorus first begins when Taylor Swift is kicked out of the window and she realizes she has been betrayed by her friend (Todorov's equilibrium theory.) Taylor is singing about being close to someone who has stabbed her in the back and this is reinforced via the music video, showing how it happened and what happened, etc.

"You say sorry just for show." This is a dig towards who the song is based around. Taylor Swift had a feud with Katy Perry and this could be referencing how Katy Perry is apologising just for the media in order to look good, but she doesn't really mean it.

Representation Theories Applied To Taylor Swift's Bad Blood Music Video

Analysis of still images from the Bad Blood music video

Does Taylor Swift's Bad Blood music video conform to Laura Mulvey's male gaze theory?

Through the analysis I have already made of various still images of this music video, I have come to the conclusion that Laura Mulvey's male gaze theory does and doesn't apply to Bad Blood. There are some aspects of the music video that does seem to conform to Mulvey's theory, such as the clothing the females are wearing-they are wearing tight clothing that show their bodies. Therefore, this could be to attract a male audience, which means the women may be viewed as sexual objects due to these clothing choices. Different camera movements are used, although I don't believe it is to objectify the women. For example, the fast tracking movement of Taylor Swift laying still wearing revealing clothing doesn't appear to be done in a sexual manner, although her clothes appear to suggest otherwise, however, it would be sexual if it was a deliberate slow track showing Taylor's body as it would be accentuating her physical appearance for the visual pleasure of the audience.

I believe this music video solely focuses on a fight between two women due to a betrayal, therefore throughout the video it shows the women as being powerful and dominant people and that they can fight their own battles, particularly due to the iconography of the guns and weapons used, as well as motorbikes, emphasising the fact they're going against female stereotypes.

I don't necessarily think this video conforms to Laura Mulvey's male gaze theory because it doesn't seem to be objectifying women or making them seem like insignificant characters simply there for the viewing pleasure of men; it is showing that they are strong and dominant people and are not 'objects.'

However, as Laura Mulvey's male gaze theory applies to women too, 'How women view themselves' and 'How women view other women', this music video could empower other women watching and influence them to take key elements of what they like from these women and try and construct this identity that they deem fit and desirable for society, therefore, in a way it does seem to conform to Laura Mulvey's theory.

Richard Dyer's Star Theory

Tessa Perkins

History of Music Videos

Music videos have changed and adapted drastically over the years, as technology has developed and grown.

Music videos have been around since the 1980's; MTV opened in 1981 and it played many music videos for an audience to watch and enjoy. However, music videos were created (often unsuccessfully) long before this.

 For example, The Beatles- Strawberry Fields Forever (1967) was very successful with the various camera and editing techniques used.
The video promotion features slow motion, fades, camera filters and many more which people found interesting and enjoyed watching, having never really seen many music videos like this one before. (Video Below)

Over the years, many artists found music videos the best way to promote and sell their product and so the idea of creating such videos became much more popular, with Michael Jackson creating the 'Thriller' music video in 1993. With it being 13 minutes long, Michael Jackson's Thriller was pretty much a short movie, with it's intriguing narrative within the video. His video was a major success and inspired many other musicians and film directors to create something similar; since his music video made it into the Guinness Book Of Records as the 'most successful music video.'
(Thriller music video below)

Britney Spears- Baby One More Time (1998)
This music video was shown on MTV and immediately became popular. However, with very little special effects, it mainly focused on synchronized dancing to match the song and realistic costume to match the school narrative. The choreography was important and intriguing and engaged with the audience. This video differs from the Michael Jackson's Thriller due to the lack of special effects, which shows how over time, these music videos developed differently and were extremely varied but both had the same positive effect on the audience, therefore allowing artists to see what people liked and disliked in music videos.
(Music video below)

Beyonce- Single Ladies (Put a ring on it) 2008
This video is different from others as it is filmed in black and white, featuring Beyonce and two other dancers. It was a huge success, as it was awarded the Video of The Year Award at the 2009 MTV Video Music awards. As Youtube was increasingly growing in 2005, music videos have moved from MTV to Youtube, where they can be viewed over and over again to the audiences choice. This is likely why it is still a huge hit now in 2015; it can still be viewed whenever people want to see/listen to the music video.
(video below)

Taylor Swift- Bad Blood (2015)

This music video has various special effects, camera movements and an interesting narrative. Featuring famous models and other artists such as Selena Gomez, Gigi Hadid, Zendaya and Cara Delevingne. With such a wide cast of such intrigue, it already attracted many people, especially from those who were fans of the other models and artists, making the video even more liked. In addition to the crazy special effects, fade outs, action, and explosions, it sure was a good watch for many. 

(Video below) 

So how has music videos changed over the years?

With little technology in the late 90's and early 80's, it was impossible to create videos we see today; with special effects from left right and center, interesting choreography's and story lines. However, The Beatles, Michael Jackson, Britney Spears and many more, set the standard for music videos today. Of course, now in 2015 we have bigger and better technology which allows for crazier videos- there is obviously going to be a huge change from past videos, however there are still some similarities, particularly the camera shots used and the narratives in each videos. With the help of MTV and Youtube, music videos have been able to shine and develop into something an audience now thinks is 'normal' as in 2015, it is expected that a song comes with a music video to match.

A2 Media Brief

Brief:

A promotion package for the release of an album, to include a music promo video, together with these 2 ancillary options.

-A cover for its release as part of a digipak (CD / DVD package)
- A magazine advertisement for a digipak (CD / DVD package)

Location List

We filmed near Kingswood Retail Park behind the housing area, next to the river bank because in Adele's video she is walking near to water. We did this so that it was as similar to the Adele's official music video as possible.

Some of the bloopers were filmed in Jessica's house when we were preparing for filming/getting things ready.